RSU Monographs and collection of articles / RSU Monogrāfijas un rakstu krājumi

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Baltic Public Opinion on China in 2022 – Neutral but Tilting towards Negative
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022) Andžāns, Māris; Rīga Stradiņš University; Center for Geopolitical Studies Riga
The chapter presents results of tri-nationally representative sociological study from Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, where public opinion on China is explored simultaneously in all three countries and within a single methodological framework.
China in the Baltic States – from a Cause of Hope to Anxiety
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022) Andžāns, Māris; Bērziņa-Čerenkova, Una Aleksandra; Kante, Justīne; Mačikėnaitė, Vida; Mikelsaar, Anniki; Andžāns, Māris; Bērziņa-Čerenkova, Una Aleksandra
The publication assesses the perception and the role of the People’s Republic of China (China) in Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania, with the emphasis on the implications of China for the national security of the three states and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Following a review of three decades of bilateral engagement between each of the Baltic states and China, the publication offers an analysis of the results from nationally representative surveys on Baltic attitudes toward China.
Conceptualizing Willingness to Defend and to Fight for Own Country
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Andžāns, Māris; Rīga Stradiņš University and Latvian Institute of International Affairs
As a part of the overarching publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), author of this chapter reviews the conceptual aspects of willingness to defend and to fight for own country. It is an updated version of a fragment from previous scientific publication by the author.
Conclusions and Recommendations: Between Unwillingness and Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States and Beyond
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Andžāns, Māris; Rīga Stradiņš University and Latvian Institute of International Affairs
Conclusions and recommendations of the publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), where the scientific editor of the publication summarizes the findings and offers recommendations.
Conclusions: China in the Baltic States – from a Cause of Hope to Anxiety
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022) Bērziņa-Čerenkova, Una Aleksandra; Rīga Stradiņš University; Latvian Institute of International Affairs
The chapter presents a comparison of the three country chapters, data and histories of engagement with China, as well as provides a conclusion of the publication.
Estonia and China: Changing role, Perceptions, and Security Implications
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022) Mikelsaar, Anniki; University of Oxford
The chapter gives an overview of the changing Sino-Estonian relations from the consolidation of diplomatic ties in 1991 until the present. It examines the security implications these ties have started to pose for Estonia and NATO, while underlining the relative insignificance of the bilateral China-Estonia financial and trade ties. Analysing public opinion polls, this chapter outlines the risk that perceptions of China may become increasingly divergent between Estonian and non-Estonian speakers, with the former perceiving China as more of a threat than the latter. This might translate into a future security implication from the standpoint of domestic cohesiveness. Taking into account imminent risks, including Chinese surveillance technology on Estonia’s border crossings, and dubious infrastructure projects still in air, such as the Tallinn-Helsinki tunnel in the Gulf of Finland, the suggestion is made for the Estonian government to start formulating its independent China strategy, to map out the remaining areas for cooperation, and draw the boundaries where collaboration can no longer take place.
Introduction
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022) Andžāns, Māris; Rīga Stradiņš University; Center for Geopolitical Studies Riga
Introductory words and contextualization of the publication “China in the Baltic States – from a Cause of Hope to Anxiety”.
Latvia and China: Entering the Post-Optimism Period
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022) Kante, Justīne; Rīga Stradiņš University
TIn order to demonstrate the changes in behaviour and the current policy goals from Latvia’s perspective, this chapter covers the historic relations between Latvia and China, followed by an overview of economic cooperation, and an insight of how the relations have been perceived recently from the Annual Reports of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Latvia and Annual Reports on the Activities of Latvian State Security Service, additionally explaining survey data reviewed in recent years on the Latvian perception of China.
NATO and the Role of Societal Resilience and Willingness to Defend Own Country
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Vargulis, Mārtiņš; Rīga Stradiņš University and Latvian Institute of International Affairs
As a part of the overarching publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), author of this chapter analyses policies and measures of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in fostering societal resilience and willingness to defend own country. The author underlines that the concept of resilience has gained additional foothold in the recent years in NATO. Notwithstanding that, interaction with the member states’ societies and resilience thereof primarily remains the responsibility of NATO member states themselves.
One Country – Two Faces: China’s Turn from an Economic Partner to Security Concern for Lithuania
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2022) Mačikėnaitė, Vida; International University of Japan
The chapter provides an overview of the relations between the People’s Republic of China and Lithuania since early 1990s, when bilateral diplomatic relations were formally established. It presents the evolution of the perception of China in Lithuania from that of an economic opportunity toward security concern, not only due to China’s activities in Lithuania but more importantly due to the implications of China’s rise to the international order more broadly. The chapter also reveals the role that Taiwan issue has played in the change of this perception and in the shift in Lithuania’s China policy recently.
Public Preferences Between Wars of Necessity and Wars of Choice
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Yeh, Yao-Yuan; University of St. Thomas – Houston, Department of International Studies & Modern Languages
As a part of the overarching publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), the author assesses preferences and attitudes in societies regarding wars of necessity and wars of choice, as well as reasoning of individuals in willing or unwilling to defend own countries. The author underlines that the level of willingness to defend own country depends on the nature of a potential conflict that the society in question is about to face – either one of necessity, or as a choice. The former here relates to self-defence against immediate threats while the latter to more distant threats.
Willingness to Defend Estonia: Fostered by Civil-Military Integration and Communication
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Juurvee, Ivo; International Centre for Defence and Security and Estonian Military Academy
As a part of the overarching publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), the author of this chapter assesses willingness to defend Estonia. The author puts forth several points. While such factors as historical experience, i.e., the Soviet occupation and visibility of NATO Allies, are shared with both Latvia and Lithuania, other reasons are more Estonia-specific. Among these are the effective integration of military and civilian sector, i.e., a mature conscription system, operational reservists’ system, and effective military-civilian communication. Another positive factor is the Nordic, or more specifically Finnish, influence on the Estonian military culture, as well as the governance approach and lifestyle in broader terms. Nevertheless, a notable issue remains – level of willingness is lower among non-Estonians, i.e., Russian speakers.
Willingness to Defend Latvia: Suffering from Disillusionment, Distrust and Individual Preferences and Abilities
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Palkova, Aleksandra; Rīga Stradiņš University and Latvian Institute of International Affairs
As a part of the publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), the author of this chapter assesses willingness to defend Latvia. In Latvia, the willingness level is lower than in Estonia but higher than in Lithuania. That level is neither high nor low in a regional and global context. The author in her chapter names the main categories of reasons that affect the situation. First, a set of detrimental factors – disillusionment with political and economic development and the related widespread distrust in state institutions and politicians. Second is a mixed factor & actor – Russia. Its military conflict with Ukraine, assertive behaviour and negative rhetoric towards Latvia have made a considerable part of the Latvian society feel insecure, whereas another part of the society, mostly Russian speakers, remain more sympathetic to Russia. Third is an impeding mix of physiological and physical factors – complacency resulting from the lack of recent experience of notable conflicts and the lack of military training of most people.
Willingness to Defend Lithuania: “System Problem Detected, Action Pending”
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Gajauskaitė, Ieva; General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania
As a part of the overarching publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), the author of this chapter assesses willingness to defend Lithuania. The author suggests taking extra care in interpreting the scarce data on willingness to defend country available on Lithuania. Nevertheless, the author observes that issues with willingness to defend Lithuania exist. The author underlines patriotism, pride in the state, as well as specific skills, i.e., military experience, and active civil society as the main preconditions for willingness to defend own country. To a various degree, in all those aspects space for progress in Lithuania remains. Attitude towards the state is a broad and complex issue to address. While conscription was reintroduced in Lithuania in 2015, its effect on willingness to defend Lithuania has not yet reached its full potential. Space for progress in societal attitudes is acknowledged also by the Lithuanian authorities, which treat it primarily in the context of civil resistance.
Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Andžāns, Māris; Gajauskaitė, Ieva; Juurvee, Ivo; Palkova, Aleksandra; Yeh, Yao-Yuan; Vargulis, Mārtiņš; Andžāns, Māris
The publication reflects on one of the core aspects and indicators of societal resilience and national defence – why ordinary people are or are not willing to defend their own countries. Based on a review of conceptual considerations and statistical data, an international team of scientists have explored the situation in Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and its implications to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
Willingness to Defend the Baltic States in Quantitative Terms
(Rīga Stradiņš University, 2021) Andžāns, Māris; Rīga Stradiņš University and Latvian Institute of International Affairs
As a part of the overarching publication “Willingness to Defend Own Country in the Baltic States: Implications for National Security and NATO’s Collective Defence” (2021), author of this chapter reviews quantitative data on willingness to defend and to fight for own country in the Baltic states. It is an updated version of a fragment from previous scientific publication by the author.

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